Attachment

Power transition theory (Neo-realism)

• hierarchical world order, with dominant power at the top of the structure & rising (dissatisfied) powers
• international system is characterized by competition for power among states and this competition can lead to conflict
• assumption that changes in power balance in world politics happen systematically
• systemic instability occurs when a rising power’s interests challenge those of a declining hegemon

• rise of new powers like BRICS countries, specifically China, could challenge the dominance of traditional powers like the US and Europe, leading to increased competition and potential conflict
• as BRICS countries continue to grow and increase their influence, they may challenge the dominance of traditional powers and lead to increased competition for power
• but BRICS could also tend towards reformist states, not exactly trying to completely revise the status quo (no radical change), but to slowly reform the existing unfair international relations system by adapting the rules to dynamic changes in the world order, to make it fairer and more suitable for all players ( evolution instead of revolution, order transition instead of harsh power transition)

Soft Power Concept (Neo-liberalism)

• rests primarily on three resources: culture, political values, and foreign policies of a country, which should be attractive to foreign partners
• Economic and financial instruments can be tools of coercion and payment rather than attraction

• BRICS have immense soft power potential and use an instrumentalist & pragmatic approach, oriented to the promotion and protection of national interests rather than accounting for international partners’ preferences

Peaceful Coexistence Concept (Neo-liberalism, Globalism, and Neo-realism)

• non-interference and mutual respect among states & importance of harmonious relations
• commitment to resolving conflicts through diplomatic means
• fostering cooperation
• acknowledging the diversity of political systems and ideologies
• acknowledging the sovereignty of states

• key component of BRICS foreign policy 
• BRICS interpretation involves:
• • Countries with different economic and sociopolitical systems can coexist peacefully;
  • The dominance of one or several countries in world politics is unacceptable
• Preference should be given to soft power tools, while military force should be used only as a last resort, on the exceptional level

Status theories (Post-positivism)

• Centres on motives that seem to be more emotional, unpredictable, or irrational
• States seeking to improve their international standing may try to pass into a higher-status group of states (mobility strategy), compete with the dominant group (competition strategy), or achieve pre-eminence in a different domain (creativity strategy)

• BRICS employ various status-seeking strategies, most of them with success, improving their reputations, having managed to create an image of themselves as constructive and peaceful states, preferring cooperation to confrontation while respecting international rules and their international partners

Neo-regionalism / Global regionalism (Post-positivism)

• importance of regional cooperation in addressing common challenges and promoting economic growth
• integration of multiple regions through cooperation and diplomacy, rather than just focusing on a single region's cultural and economic integration
• oriented towards interactions between state and non-state actors in the process of transforming the world power structure
• Global regions are based on functional, network-type, identity, multi-actor, and multifactor principles rather than geographic proximity

• BRICS as a forum of emerging powers to shape the world order, actively cooperating in numerous political and economic areas
• BRICS as a global region based on functional, multi-factor, and multi-actor principles rather than any geographical connections
• However, majority of the cooperation is bilateral, instead of multilateral and no unified transnational agenda has yet emerged
• Aims to become the leading market economy by promoting development and cooperation
• As BRICS countries continue to grow and increase their influence, they may seek to increase regional cooperation to address common challenges such as climate change, terrorism, and economic inequality
• This could lead to increased integration and cooperation within the BRICS region, potentially leading to greater economic growth and stability

Neo-function-alism

• theory of regional integration emphasizing the role of functional spillovers in the integration process
• emphasises the importance of non-state actors such as regional and international organisations in promoting functional cooperation
• cooperation in one area can lead to cooperation in the other areas, which can lead to further integration

• As BRICS countries continue to cooperate in areas such as trade and finance, this could lead to increased cooperation in other areas such as security and foreign policy
• BRICS are functioning together in multiple ways towards reshaping the world power structure i.e., by establishing institutions like the NDB, CRA & BRI

Neo-institutionalism

• not interested in studying ideal institutions, but rather in understanding the plurality of existing institutions and how they affect political behaviour
• an institution as a set of rules and procedures that guide and constrain the actor’s behaviour
• Institutions shape the interaction between actors, but the actors also keep for themselves the capability to make decisions within a scheme of normative constraints
• three institutional elements: a) deliberation spaces; b) common information systems; and c) institutional incentive system

• BRICS as an institution because it has three institutional elements
• at the beginning these institutional features were characterized by being highly informal, the member countries have sought to deepen the BRICS’ institutionalization process based on the confidence effect observed after the Global Financial Crisis
• intergovernmentalism predominates, as member states have not waived sovereignty, but instead established common norms and rules, allowing them to establish consistency and collective cooperation to increase collective negotiating capacity in international arena

Neoliberal Institutionalism

• international regimes or institutions make cooperation possible among states in the anarchic international system
• institutions can also be seen as an intervening variable between the anarchical international system and the outcome of conflict or cooperation, which mitigates the potential conflicts due to an imbalance in the distribution of power

• the interdependence created when cooperating and interacting with China will make China a peaceful and responsible player on the world stage
• the peaceful rise of China can happen via “a two-way process”, which not only depends on China and its relations with the international society both globally and regionally but also on how others respond to China
• it is easier for China to join the current Western liberal order that is “open, integrated, and rule-based” than it is to challenge it
• the potential conflicts (e.g. between China and India) may be mediated and mitigated by common institutions, such as BRICS

Offensive Neorealism

• centres on the distribution of power in the anarchical international system which determines the outcome of power transitions
• since great powers want to survive in the anarchical international system and they cannot be certain as to how other powers will behave, their rational actions will be based on the power distribution

• as (historically) rising powers and established powers end in a military confrontation, the US and China will inevitably confront each other due to the rapid rise of China
• the BRICS Development Bank (NDB) or the China-initiated Asian Investment Infrastructure Bank (AIIB) can be seen as BRICS countries’ strategies to challenge the established global order
• the rise of India could lead to a conflict with the more or less established China as they are competing for dominance in Asia

Defensive Neorealism

• During power transition, perception is a crucial intervening variable between the outcome of conflict or cooperation and the actual power distribution
• states tend to favour balance of power, which means that they would join the weaker coalition to counter a regional hegemon

• perception explains why China is often perceived as a threat to the US even though its military power still lags behind that of the US
• perception may explain why India may perceive China as a greater security threat than the US
• the success or failure of future cooperation and solidarity within BRICS will depend on how these countries perceive each other rather than the actual power distribution among them
• geopolitical tension within BRICS could pose a problem

Moral realism (Tsinghua approach)

• combines ancient Chinese thoughts with a positivist research methodology and policy recommendations
• moral (political) leadership & human factors are at the centre
• important role of great individuals

• the rise of China will contribute significantly to economic growth and scientific progress in the world, making it more peaceful and civilized place through China’s positive role in reducing the current unequal global power distribution and its humane and moral leadership

Chinese Relationality

• “both and” paradigm
• actors can only exist in social relations
• focus on relations between and among actors
• the relationship between actors that determines these actors’ actions, and this is not fixed but open to different trajectories and constantly in the process of becoming
• states behave differently to their friends, allies, rivals, and enemies

• the determinant will be the condition of bilateral relations among China, India, and Russia, which can change in various directions via the process of interaction between actors. 
• • E.g. if China and Russia enjoy a close relationship, Russia will not join India to contain China even if China becomes dominant in Asia
  • Similarly, if China enjoys good relationships with Brazil and South Africa, investments to these countries will be seen in a positive light. 
  • If their relationships deteriorate, investments will then be perceived as threats and even colonial

Neoclassist Realism

• Primacy of systemic factors
• the international system plays the dominant role in shaping national security decisions
• international imperatives are filtered through the domestic political environment, which can lead to variations in the way states respond to common international pressures
• states will either initiate a full‐scale balancing strategy (balancing) with a stronger, adversarial power, or align with the latter (bandwagoning), or hedge their bets against different possibilities and competing interests (hedging)

• systemic factors shape the broad contours and general directions of states' foreign policies, but their real‐world effects are mediated by unit‐level factors
• Iran, Saudi Arabia, Russia, and Brazil all use hedging to manage their relations with great powers
• The relationship of China & Saudi Arabia will continue to be characterised by economic pragmatism & strategic use of hedging on both sides
• Both Saudi Arabia and China tend to hedge against uncertainties and keep their future policy options open
• China has used a strategic hedging approach by not overtly challenging US leadership but continuing to engage & pursue own interests
• Strategic hedging also describes Chinese & Russian relations to UAE, as well as the UAE’s receptiveness

Multialignment

• the pursuit of multiple formal and informal partnerships and engagements with a range of multilateral forums, as a means of enhancing access to resources, technology and bolstering leadership credentials on global affairs
• multialignment can include a degree of strategic hedging, in addition to strategic partnerships, especially when it comes to disputes and conflicts

• India seeking partnerships with all major powers, including Russia, the United States (US), Japan and China, and simultaneously engaging international and regional multilateral organizations such as (BRICS), the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), and the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN)